Stevia

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Stevia
Stevia rebaudiana flowers.
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Tribe: Eupatorieae
Genus: Stevia
Cav.
Species

About 240 species, including:

Stevia (/ˈstvɪə/, /ˈstvjə/ or /ˈstɛvɪə/)[1][2][3][4] is a genus of about 240 species of herbs and shrubs in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), native to subtropical and tropical regions from western North America to South America. The species Stevia rebaudiana, commonly known as sweetleaf, sweet leaf, sugarleaf, or simply stevia, is widely grown for its sweet leaves. As a sweetener and sugar substitute, stevia's taste has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar, although some of its extracts may have a bitter or licorice-like aftertaste at high concentrations.

With its steviol glycoside extracts having up to 300 times the sweetness of sugar, stevia has garnered attention with the rise in demand for low-carbohydrate, low-sugar food alternatives. Because stevia has a negligible effect on blood glucose, it is attractive as a natural sweetener to people on carbohydrate-controlled diets.

The availability of stevia varies from country to country. In a few countries, it has been available as a sweetener for decades or centuries; for example, stevia has been widely used for decades as a sweetener in Japan. In some countries, health concerns and political controversies have limited its availability; for example, the United States banned stevia in the early 1990s unless labeled as a dietary supplement,[5][6] but in 2008 it approved rebaudioside A extract as a food additive. Over the years, the number of countries in which stevia is available as a sweetener has been increasing. In 2011, stevia was approved for use in the EU starting in early December, 2011.[7][8]

Contents

[edit] History and use

The genus Stevia consists of 240[9] species of plants native to South America, Central America, and Mexico, with several species found as far north as Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.[10] They were first researched by Spanish botanist and physician Petrus Jacobus Stevus (Pedro Jaime Esteve 1500–1556),[11] from whose surname originates the Latinized word stevia.[12] Human use of the sweet species S. rebaudiana originated in South America. The leaves of the stevia plant have 30–45 times the sweetness of sucrose (ordinary table sugar).[13] The leaves can be eaten fresh, or put in teas and foods.

The plant was used extensively by the Guarani people for more than 1,500 years, and the plant has a long history of medicinal use in Paraguay and Brazil.[14] The leaves have been traditionally used for hundreds of years in Paraguay and Brazil to sweeten local teas, medicines and as a "sweet treat".[14]

Steviol is the basic building block of stevia's sweet glycosides.

In 1899, the Swiss botanist Moisés Santiago Bertoni, during his research in eastern Paraguay, first described the plant and the sweet taste in detail.[15] Only limited research was conducted on the topic until, in 1931, two French chemists isolated the glycosides that give stevia its sweet taste.[16] These compounds, stevioside and rebaudioside, are 250–300 times as sweet as sucrose, heat-stable, pH-stable, and not fermentable.[17]

The exact structure of the aglycone and the glycoside were published in 1955.

In the early 1970s, sweeteners such as cyclamate and saccharin were suspected carcinogens. As a result, Japan began cultivating stevia as an alternative. The plant's leaves, the aqueous extract of the leaves, and purified steviosides were developed as sweeteners. The first commercial stevia sweetener in Japan was produced by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1971.[18] The Japanese have been using stevia in food products, soft drinks (including Coca Cola),[19] and for table use. Japan currently consumes more stevia than any other country, with stevia accounting for 40% of the sweetener market.[20]

Today, stevia is cultivated and used in food elsewhere in East Asia including in China (since 1984), Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and Malaysia. It can also be found in Saint Kitts and Nevis, in parts of South America (Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Paraguay, and Uruguay), and in Israel. China is the world's largest exporter of stevioside.[20]

Stevia species are found in the wild in semiarid habitats ranging from grassland to mountain terrain. They do produce seeds, but only a small percentage of them germinate. Planting cloned stevia is a more effective method of reproduction.[citation needed]

[edit] Folk medicine and research

For centuries, the Guaraní peoples of Paraguay used stevia, which they called ka'a he'ê ("sweet herb"), as a sweetener in yerba mate and cardiotonic medicinal teas.[21] Current research has evaluated its effects on obesity[22] and hypertension.[23][24] Stevia has a negligible effect on blood glucose, and may even enhance glucose tolerance;[25] it may be useful as a natural sweetener for diabetics and others on carbohydrate-controlled diets.[26]

[edit] Availability

The stevia plant may be grown legally in most countries, although some countries restrict its use as a sweetener.
Stevia as widely sold in health food stores in Germany

[edit] Current availability

Widely used as a sweetener
Available as a food additive (sweetener)
  • Australia, and New Zealand (October 2008)[28] — All steviol glycoside extracts
  • Brazil (1986)[27]Stevioside extract
  • Hong Kong (steviol glycosides, January 2010)[29]
  • Israel (January 2012)[30]
  • Mexico (2009)[27] — mixed steviol glycoside extract, not separate extracts
  • Norway (June 2012) As food additive [31] — E 960 Steviol glycoside. The plant it self has not been approved as of September 2012
  • Paraguay – used with mate or hot herbal tea, currently available in liquid form as a sugar substitute[citation needed]
    Stevia extract on sale in a supermarket in Paraguay
  • Russian Federation (2008) — stevioside is allowed in the "minimal dosage required" to achieve the goal of the additive.[32]
  • Singapore has banned stevia in the past,[33] although as of 2005, steviol glycoside is a permitted sweetening agent in certain foods.[34]
Available as a dietary supplement
  • Canada
Available as both a food additive and dietary supplement
  • European Union — Steviol glycosides are permitted as a food additive as of 2 December 2011.[7][8][27][35][36]
  • United States (December 2008)
    • Stevia leaf and extracts are available as dietary supplements (1995)
    • Rebaudioside A is available (December 2008) as a food additive (sweetener)[37] sold under various trade names.
Available (regulatory status unverified)

[edit] Availability notes

[edit] Commercialization

Steviol glycosides were first commercialized as a sweetener in 1971 by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co., Ltd., a leading stevia extract producer in Japan.

Stevia has been grown on an experimental basis in Ontario, Canada since 1987 for the purpose of determining the feasibility of growing the crop commercially.

In 2007, The Coca-Cola Company announced plans to obtain approval for their stevia-derived sweetener, rebiana, for use as a food additive within the United States by 2009, as well as plans to market rebiana-sweetened products in 12 countries that allow stevia's use as a food additive.[40][41] In May 2008, Coca Cola and Cargill announced the availability of Truvia, a consumer brand stevia sweetener containing erythritol and rebiana,[42] which the FDA permitted as a food additive in December 2008.[43] Coca-Cola announced intentions to release stevia-sweetened beverages in late December 2008.[44]

Shortly afterward, PepsiCo and Pure Circle announced PureVia, their brand of stevia-based sweetener, but withheld release of beverages sweetened with rebaudioside A until receipt of FDA confirmation. Since the FDA permitted Truvia and PureVia, both Coca Cola and PepsiCo have introduced products that contain their new sweeteners.[45]

[edit] Extraction of sweet compounds

S. rebaudiana foliage

Rebaudioside A has the least bitterness of all the steviol glycosides in the stevia plant. To produce rebaudioside A commercially, stevia plants are dried and subjected to a water extraction process. This crude extract contains about 50% rebaudioside A; its various glycoside molecules are separated via crystallization techniques, typically using ethanol or methanol as solvent. This allows the manufacturer to isolate pure rebaudioside A.[46]

The National Research Council of Canada has patented a process for extracting sweet compounds from stevia by column extraction at temperatures from 0–25 °C, followed by purification by nanofiltration. A microfiltration pretreatment step is used to clarify the extract. Purification is by ultrafiltration followed by nanofiltration.[47]

[edit] Mechanism of action

Glycosides are molecules that contain glucose and other non-sugar substances called aglycones (molecules with other sugars are polysaccharides). The tongue's taste receptors react to the glucose in the glycosides — those with more glucose (rebaudioside) taste sweeter than those with less (stevioside). Some of the tongue's bitter receptors react to the aglycones.

In the digestive tract, rebaudiosides are metabolised into stevioside. Then stevioside is broken down into glucose and steviol. The glucose released in this process is used by bacteria in the colon and not absorbed into the blood stream.[48] Steviol cannot be further digested and is passed from the digestive system in urine or feces.

[edit] Health and safety

In 2009, FDA considered "Rebiana (rebaudioside A) to be Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS)".[49] The report includes a detailed list of international studies, references, and chemical analysis.[49]

Two 2010 review studies found no health concerns with stevia or its sweetening extracts.[50][51] In addition, a 2009 review study found that stevioside and related compounds have anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-diarrheal, diuretic, and immunomodulatory actions.[52]

The European Food Safety Authority evaluated the safety of steviol glycosides, extracted from the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni plant, as sweetener and expressed its opinion on 10 March 2010. The Authority established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for steviol glycosides, expressed as steviol equivalents, of 4 mg/kg bodyweight/day. On 11 November 2011, the European Commission allowed the usage of steviol glycosides as a food additive, establishing maximum content levels for different types of foods and beverages.[53]

Preliminary human studies suggest stevia may affect blood pressure,[54] although another study has shown it to have no effect on hypertension.[55] Indeed, millions of Japanese have been using stevia for over thirty years with no reported or known harmful effects.[56] Similarly, stevia leaves have been used for centuries in South America, spanning multiple generations in ethnomedical tradition as a treatment for diabetes mellitus type 2.[57]

In 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) evaluated experimental studies of stevioside and steviols conducted on animals and humans, and concluded "stevioside and rebaudioside A are not genotoxic in vitro or in vivo and that the genotoxicity of steviol and some of its oxidative derivatives in vitro is not expressed in vivo."[58] The report also found no evidence of carcinogenic activity. Furthermore, the report noted "stevioside has shown some evidence of pharmacological effects in patients with hypertension or with diabetes mellitus type 2",[58] but concluded further study was required to determine proper dosage. The WHO's Joint Experts Committee on Food Additives has approved, based on long-term studies, an acceptable daily intake of steviol glycoside of up to 4 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.[59]

A 1985 study reported that steviol, a breakdown product from stevioside and rebaudioside (two of the sweet steviol glycosides in the stevia leaf), is a mutagen in the presence of a liver extract of rats pretreated with a PCB blend[60] — but this finding was criticized.[61] Over the following years, bioassay, cell culture, and animal studies have shown mixed results in terms of toxicology and adverse effects of stevia constituents. While reports emerged that found steviol and stevioside to be weak mutagens,[62][63] the bulk of studies show an absence of harmful effects.[64][65] In a 2008 review, 14 of 16 studies cited showed no genotoxic activity for stevioside, 11 of 15 studies showed no genotoxic activity for steviol, and no studies showed genotoxicity for rebaudioside A. No evidence for stevia constituents causing cancer or birth defects has been found.[64][65]

In relation to diabetes, studies have shown stevia to have a possible trophic effect on β-cells of pancreas,[14] to improve insulin sensitivity in rats,[66] and possibly even to promote additional insulin production,[67] helping to reverse diabetes and metabolic syndrome.[68] Stevia consumed before meals significantly reduced postprandial insulin levels compared to both aspartame and sucrose.[69] A 2011 review study concluded that stevia sweeteners would likely benefit diabetic patients.[50]

[edit] Controversy

In 1991, after receiving an anonymous industry complaint, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeled stevia as an "unsafe food additive" and restricted its import.[39][70][71] The FDA's stated reason was "toxicological information on stevia is inadequate to demonstrate its safety."[72]

Since the import ban in 1991, marketers and consumers of stevia have shared a belief that the FDA acted in response to industry pressure.[39] Arizona congressman Jon Kyl, for example, called the FDA action against stevia "a restraint of trade to benefit the artificial sweetener industry."[73] To protect the complainant, the FDA deleted names in the original complaint in its responses to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act.[39]

Stevia remained banned until after the 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act forced the FDA in 1995 to revise its stance to permit stevia to be used as a dietary supplement, although not as a food additive – a position that stevia proponents regarded as contradictory because it simultaneously labels stevia as safe and unsafe, depending on how it is sold.[5]

Early studies prompted the European Commission in 1999 to ban stevia's use in food in the European Union pending further research.[74] In 2006, research data compiled in the safety evaluation released by the World Health Organization found no adverse effects.[58] Since 2008, the Russian Federation has allowed stevioside as a food additive "in the minimal dosage required".[32]

In December 2008, the FDA gave a "no objection" approval for GRAS status to Truvia (developed by Cargill and The Coca-Cola Company) and PureVia (developed by PepsiCo and the Whole Earth Sweetener Company, a subsidiary of Merisant), both of which use rebaudioside A derived from the Stevia plant.[75] However, FDA said that these products are not Stevia, but a highly purified product.[76]

In 2012 FDA posted a note on their website regarding crude Stevia plant: "FDA has not permitted the use of whole-leaf Stevia or crude Stevia extracts because these substances have not been approved for use as a food additive. FDA does not consider their use in food to be GRAS in light of reports in the literature that raise concerns about the use of these substances. Among these concerns are control of blood sugar and effects on the reproductive, cardiovascular, and renal systems."[77]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes and references

  1. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stevia
  2. ^ Oxford Dictionaries' British & World English dictionary
  3. ^ Oxford Dictionaries' US English dictionary
  4. ^ Both /ˈstvɪə/ and /ˈstɛvɪə/ are recorded by at least some US and UK dictionaries, but the former is more common in US English (listed first or exclusively) and the latter is more common in UK English.
  5. ^ a b McCaleb, Rob (1997). "Controversial Products in the Natural Foods Market". Herb Research Foundation. http://herbs.org/greenpapers/controv.html#stevia. Retrieved 8 November 2006.
  6. ^ "Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994". fda.gov. 2011 (last update). http://www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/Legislation/FederalFoodDrugandCosmeticActFDCAct/SignificantAmendmentstotheFDCAct/ucm148003.htm. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
  7. ^ a b Lucas, Louise (2011 [last update]). "Brussels backs Stevia sweetener". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f1e157e0-0ec1-11e1-b83c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1eNhsQGhp. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
  8. ^ a b Stones, Mike (2011 [last update]). "Stevia wins final EU approval". foodmanufacture.co.uk. http://www.foodmanufacture.co.uk/Ingredients/Stevia-wins-final-EU-approval. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
  9. ^ "Stevia". Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=131515.
  10. ^ "Stevia Cav.". USDA PLANTS. http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=STEVI.
  11. ^ "Definition of Stevia". Merriam Webster. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stevia.
  12. ^ Parsons, WT; Cuthbertson, EG (2001). Noxious Weeds of Australia, 2nd ed.. Collingswood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-06514-7. http://books.google.com/?id=sRCrNAQQrpwC&lpg=PA309&dq=%22Pedro%20Jaime%20Esteve%22%20stevia&pg=PA309#v=onepage&q=. This reference refers specifically to Stevia eupatoria, a related weed having the same nomenclature origin.
  13. ^ "Opinion on Stevia Rebaudiana plants and leaves" (PDF) (Press release). European Commission Scientific Committee on Food. 17 June 1999. http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/208/stevia_rebaudiana_june_1999.pdf. Retrieved 27 January 2008.
  14. ^ a b c Misra, H.; Soni, M.; Silawat, N.; Mehta, D.; Mehta, BK.; Jain, DC. (Apr 2011). "Antidiabetic activity of medium-polar extract from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bert. (Bertoni) on alloxan-induced diabetic rats". J Pharm Bioallied Sci 3 (2): 242–8. doi:10.4103/0975-7406.80779. PMC 3103919. PMID 21687353. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3103919/.
  15. ^ Bertoni, Moisés Santiago (1899). Revista de Agronomia de l'Assomption 1: 35.
  16. ^ Bridel, M.; Lavielle, R. (1931). "Sur le principe sucre des feuilles de kaa-he-e (stevia rebaundiana B)". Academie des Sciences Paris Comptes Rendus (Parts 192): 1123–5.
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  23. ^ PubMed research articles on stevia's effects on blood pressure
  24. ^ PubMed articles on stevia's use in treating hypertension
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  28. ^ Stevia gets Australian approval for food and beverages
  29. ^ "Cap 132U SCHEDULE (SWEETENERS IN FOOD REGULATIONS; PUBLIC HEALTH AND MUNICIPAL SERVICES ORDINANCE) |". legislation.gov.hk. 2011 (last update)]. http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_ind.nsf/E1BF50C09A33D3DC482564840019D2F4/85E9080411B3696948257770001470C7?OpenDocument. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
  30. ^ [author missing] (2012 [last update]). "Stevia Sweeteners Now Approved in Israel | Green Prophet". greenprophet.com. http://www.greenprophet.com/2012/01/stevia-sweeteners-approved-in-israel/. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
  31. ^ Norwegian Stevia fact sheet Norwegian Institute of Public Health
  32. ^ a b "Technical regulations for juice products from fruits and vegetables". Russian Federation Federal Law. 27 October 2008. p. Table 5. http://ec.europa.eu/food/international/trade/docs/allfood_05_en.pdf.
  33. ^ Li, Simon (27 March 2002) (PDF). Fact Sheet: Stevioside. Hong Kong Legislative Council Secretariat Research and Library Services Division. http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr01-02/english/sec/library/0102fs04e.pdf.
  34. ^ "Sale of Food Act, Chapter 283, Section 56(1) — Food Regulations". Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore. 2005. http://www.ava.gov.sg/NR/rdonlyres/0CA18578-7610-4917-BB67-C7DF4B96504B/19280/2web_SOF_FoodRegulations15April2011.pdf.
  35. ^ Halliday, Jess (8 September 2009). "France approves high Reb A stevia sweeteners". foodnavigator.com. http://www.foodnavigator.com/On-your-radar/Healthier-products/France-approves-high-Reb-A-stevia-sweeteners. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  36. ^ Halliday, Jess (15 September 2009). "France’s first stevia products around the corner". foodanddrinkeurope.com. http://www.foodanddrinkeurope.com/Products-Marketing/France-s-first-stevia-products-around-the-corner. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  37. ^ a b c Curry,Leslie Lake. "Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000287". http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=grasListing&id=287. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  38. ^ a b c "Olam and Wilmar in 50:50 JV to Acquire 20% Stake in PureCircle, a Leading Producer of Natural High-Intensity Sweeteners for USD 106.2 Mln". flex-news-food.com. 1 July 2008. http://www.flex-news-food.com/console/PageViewer.aspx?page=17487. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
  39. ^ a b c d Hawke, Jenny (February–March 2003). "The Bittersweet Story of the Stevia Herb" (PDF). Nexus magazine 10 (2). http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whale.to%2Fb%2Fhawke.html&date=2010-12-20. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
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  41. ^ Etter, Lauren and McKay, Betsy (31 May 2007). "Coke, Cargill Aim For a Shake-Up In Sweeteners". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118058140982419717.html?mod=rss_whats_news_us. Retrieved 1 June 2007.
  42. ^ "Truvia ingredients". http://www.truvia.com/about/ingredients/default.aspx. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
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  44. ^ Associated Press (15 December 2008). "Coke to sell drinks with stevia; Pepsi holds off". The Seattle Times. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2008522412_apdrinkssweetener.html. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
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  53. ^ NeOfficial Journal of the European Union (11 November 2011). "COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 1131/2011" (PDF). p. Document page 26 / PDF page 39. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:295:0205:0211:EN:PDF. Retrieved 15 November 2011. "The CE regulation establishes steviol glycosides as food additive, and establishes maximum content levels in foodstuff and beverages."
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